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{{Infobox Former Country| native_name=''[Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów'' ([Polish language)''Abiejų tautų respublika'' ([Lithuanian language) | conventional_long_name= Commonwealth of Both Nations | common_name = Poland–Lithuania | continent=Europe | status=State union | p1=Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569) | image_p1=] | p2=Grand Duchy of Lithuania | image_p2=] | s1=Kingdom of Prussia | flag_s1=Flag of Prussia (1750).gif | s2=Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria | flag_s2=Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg | s3=Russian Empire | flag_s3=Flag of Russia.svg | year_start=1569 | date_start=July 1 | event_start=[Union of Lublin | year_end=1795 | date_end=October 24, [ | event_end=[Partitions of Poland | event1=[Partitions of Poland | date_event1=August 5, [ | event2=Constitution of [May 3, [ | date_event2=May 3, [ | event3=[Partitions of Poland | date_event3=January 23, [ | image_coat=Herb Rzeczpospolitej Obojga Narodow.svg | symbol=Coat of arms of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth | image_map=Location-Pol-Lith-Commonwealth.png | image_map_caption=The Commonwealth around 1619 | government_type=Monarchy | legislature=Sejm | title_leader=[List of Polish monarchs | leader1=[List of Polish monarchs | title_deputy=[List of Lithuanian rulers | deputy1=[List of Lithuanian rulers | religion=[Roman Catholic Church | capital=Kraków until [, Warsaw (shared with [Grodno from [) | stat_area1=815000 | stat_pop1=6500000 | stat_year1=1582 | stat_area2=990000 | stat_pop2=10500000 | stat_year2=1618 | national_motto=Si Deus Nobiscum quis contra nos([Latin: ''If God is with us, then who is against us'')[Pro Fide, Lege et Rege([Latin: ''For Faith, Law and King'', since [18th century) | common_languages= Polish language,Daniel. Z Stone, ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0295980931&id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=%22official+language%22+Poland+Lithuania&sig=vUDl2wB7wuTLJuBYjxX2KuKxpNs The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795'', p46 [Latin, [Lithuanian language{{cite book | last = Zinkevičius | first = Z. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Rytų Lietuva praeityje ir dabar | publisher = Vilnius: [Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla -->) (1657–1686)

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, also known as the First Polish Republic or Republic (Commonwealth) of the Two (Both) Nations (Peoples), ( or Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; ) or as the "First Republic," was one of the largest and most populous Heritage: Interactive Atlas: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, accessed on 19 March 2006: At its apogee, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth comprised some 400,000 square miles and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million. For population comparisons, see also those maps: , . countries in 17th century Europe. Its political structure — that of a semi-federal, semi-confederal aristocracy republic — was formed in 1569 by the Union of Lublin, which united the Jagiellon Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and lasted in this form until the adoption of the Constitution of May 3, 1791. The Commonwealth covered not only the territories of what is now Poland and Lithuania, but also the entire territory of Belarus and Latvia, large parts of Ukraine and Estonia, and part of present-day western Russia (Smolensk and Kaliningrad oblasts). Originally the official languages of the Commonwealth were Polish language and Latin (in the Kingdom of Poland) and Ruthenian language and Lithuanian language (in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania).

The Commonwealth was an extension of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, a personal union between those two states that had existed from 1386 (see Union of Krewo). The Commonwealth's political system, often called the Noble's democracy or Golden Freedom, was characterized by the Monarch power being reduced by laws and the legislature (Sejm) controlled by the nobility (szlachta). This system was a precursor of the modern concepts of broader democracyMaciej Janowski, Polish Liberal Thought, Central European University Press, 2001, ISBN 963-9241-18-0, Google Print: p3, p12 and constitutional monarchyPaul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-19-820654-2, Google print p84Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance, Duke University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8223-1802-4, Google Print, p34George Sanford (scholar), Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics Since 1989, Palgrave, 2002, ISBN 0-333-77475-2, Google print p11 — constitutional monarchy, p3 — anarchy as well as federation.Aleksander Gella, Development of Class Structure in Eastern Europe: Poland and Her Southern Neighbors, SUNY Press, 1998, ISBN 0-88706-833-2, Google Print, p13 The two comprising states of the Commonwealth were formally equal, although in reality Poland was a dominant partner in the union."Formally, Poland and Lithuania were to be distinct, equal components of the federation… But Poland, which retained possession of the Lithuanian lands it had seized, but Poland had greater representation in the Diet and became the dominant partner."The Roman Catholic Church had massive influence in the affairs of the Commonwealth, which was however notable for the state's relative religious tolerance,Halina Stephan, Living in Translation: Polish Writers in America, Rodopi, 2003, ISBN 90-420-1016-9, Google Print p373. Quoting from Sarmatian Review academic journal mission statement: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was characterized by religious tolerance unusual in premodern Europe although the degree of it varied with timeFeliks Gross, Citizenship and Ethnicity: The Growth and Development of a Democratic Multiethnic Institution, Greenwood Press, 1999, ISBN 0-313-30932-9, Google Print, p122 (notes) Its economics was mainly based on agriculture. While the Commonwealth's first century was a golden age for both Poland and Lithuania, the second century was marked by military defeats, a return to serfdom for the peasants (the second serfdom phenomena The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis, discussion and full online text of Evsey Domar (1970) "The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis," Economic History Review '30:1 (March), pp18–32), and growing anarchy (word)Martin Van Gelderen, Quentin Skinner, Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-80756-5 Google Print: p54 in political life.Shortly before its demise, the Commonwealth adopted the world's second-oldest codex national constitution in Modern Times (history);John Markoff (professor) describes the advent of modern codified national constitutions and states that "The first European country to follow the U.S. example was Poland in 1791." John Markoff, Waves of Democracy, 1996, ISBN 0-8039-9019-7, Google Print, p121

The Duchy of Warsaw, established in 1807, traced its origins to the Commonwealth. Other revival movements appeared during the January Uprising (1863–1864) and in the 1920s, with Józef Piłsudski's failed attempt to create a Polish-led "Międzymorze" ("Between-Seas") federation that would have included Lithuania and Ukrainian People's Republic. Today's Poland considers itself a successor to the Commonwealth,As stated, for instance by the preamble of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 1997. whereas the pre-World War II Lithuania distanced itself from any association which it considered not to have been historically beneficial to Lithuania.Alfonsas Eidintas, Vytautas Zalys, Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918–1940, Palgrave, 1999, ISBN 0-312-22458-3. Print, p78

History The creation of the Commonwealth by the Union of Lublin in 1569 was one of the signal achievements of Sigismund II Augustus, last king of the Jagiellon dynasty. His death in 1572 was followed by a three-year interregnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system that effectively increased the power of the nobility (the szlachta) and established a truly elective monarchy.

The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the first half of the 17th century. Its powerful parliament (the Sejm) was dominated by nobles who were reluctant to get involved in the Thirty Years' War, sparing the country from the ravages of this largely religious conflict devastating most of contemporary Europe. The Commonwealth was able to hold its own against Sweden, Muscovy, and vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and at times launched successful expansionism offensives against its neighbors. During Russo-Polish War (1605-1618), which was weakened in early-17th century by the Time of Troubles, Commonwealth troops managed to take Moscow and hold on to it from 27 September 1610 to 4 November 1612, until driven out by Russo-Polish War (1605-1618)#The war resumes .281611.29 in 1611.

Commonwealth power waned after a double blow in 1648. The first blow was history's greatest :category:Cossack uprisings (the Khmelnytskyi Uprising, supported by Crimean Khanate Tatars, in the eastern territories of Kresy), which resulted in Cossacks Treaty of Pereyaslav. In 1651, in the face of a growing threat from Poland, and forsaken by his Tatar allies, Bohdan Khmelnytsky asked the Tsar to incorporate Ukraine as an autonomous duchy under Russian protection. (1654) thus leading to Russian influence over Ukraine gradually supplanting the Polish. The other blow to the Commonwealth was the Swedish invasion in 1655 (supported by troops of Transylvanian duke George II Rakoczy and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, Prince-elector of Brandenburg), known as The Deluge (Polish history), provoked by the policies of Commonwealth kings from the Swedish royal House of Vasa.

In the late 17th century, the weakened Commonwealth under King John III of Poland in alliance with the forces of Holy Roman emperor Leopold I dealt the crushing defeats to the Ottoman Empire: in 1683, the Battle of Vienna marked the final turning point in a 250-year struggle between the forces of Christianity Europe and the Islamic Ottoman Empire. For its centuries long stance against the Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of "Antemurale Christianitatis" (forefront of Christianity). Over the next 16 years (in the "Great Turkish War") the Turks would be permanently driven south of the Danube River, never to threaten central Europe again.

By the 18th century, the Commonwealth was facing many internal problems and was vulnerable to foreign influences. The destabilization of the political system brought it to the brink of anarchism. Attempts at reform, such as those made by the Four-Year Sejm of 1788–1792, which culminated in the May Constitution of Poland of 1791, came too late, and the country was partitions of Poland by the neighboring Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Monarchy. By 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map of Europe. Poland and Lithuania re-established their independence, as separate countries, only in 1918.

State organization and politics i.e. Stanislaus II August coat of arms is placed in the middle of the shield. The sculpture is situated in Poznań. Golden Liberty of 1569, by Jan Matejko, 1869, oil on canvas, 298×512centimetre, National Museum, Warsaw

The political doctrine of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was: our state is a republic under the presidency of the King. Kanclerz Jan Zamoyski summed up this doctrine when he said that "Rex regnat et non gubernat" ("The King reigns but does not govern"). The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a Senat and an elected king. The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in King Henry's Articles as well as in Pacta conventa (Poland) negotiated at the time of his election.

The monarch's power was limited, in favor of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to subscribe to King Henry's Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of religious tolerance). Over time, King Henry's Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of senators.

The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the "Golden Liberty" (, a term used from 1573), included:

. The Free election of 1573, by Jan MatejkoThe three regions (see below) of the Commonwealth enjoyed a degree of Autonomous entity. Each voivodship had its own parliament (sejmik), which exercised serious political power, including choice of poseł (Chamber of Deputies) to the national Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had its own separate army, treasury and most other official institutions.

Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar political systems existed in the contemporary city-states like the Republic of Venice.Joanna Olkiewicz, Najaśniejsza Republika Wenecka (Most Serene Republic of Venice), Książka i Wiedza, 1972, Warszawa (interestingly both states were styled the "Most Serene Republic."Joseph Conrad, Notes on Life and Letters: Notes on Life and Letters, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-56163-9, Google Print, p422 (notes)) At a time when most European countries were headed toward centralization, absolute monarchy and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with decentralization, confederation and federation, democracy, religious tolerance and even pacifism. Since the Sejm usually vetoed a monarch's plans for war, this constitutes a notable argument for the democratic peace theory. 2000. Especially pp9–11, 114, 181, 323.

This unusual for its time political system stemmed from the victories of the szlachta (nobility over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of:

The political players and Grand Hetman Jan Zamoyski herbu Jelita Coat of Arms, in crimson delia and blue silk żupan. Holds hetman's baton (buława)

The major players in the politics of the Commonwealth were:

The magnates and the szlachta were far from united, with many factions supporting either the monarch or various of the magnates.

Shortcomings of the Commonwealth — The Fall of Poland", oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1866, 282×487centimetre, Royal Castle in Warsaw. Tadeusz Rejtan (lower right) in September 1773 tried to prevent the legitimisation of the Partitions of Poland by preventing the members of Sejm from entering the chamber.

Once the Jagiellon dynasty had disappeared from the scene in 1572, the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government began to shake. Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility.

In their periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not found another strong dynasty. This policy often produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the able Transylvanian Stefan Batory (1576–1586), the kings of foreign origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. This was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish House of Vasa, whose politics brought the Commonwealth into conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as The Deluge (Polish history) (1648), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline.

Rokosz of Zebrzydowski (1606–1607) marked a substantial increase in the power of the magnates, and the transformation of szlachta democracy into magnate oligarchy. The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies bribedWilliam Bullitt, The Great Globe Itself: A Preface to World Affairs, Transaction Publishers, 2005, ISBN 1-4128-0490-6, Google Print, pp42–43John Adams, The Political Writings of John Adams, Regnery Gateway, 2001, ISBN 0-89526-292-4, Google Print, p.242 by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over a century, from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th century, while her neighbors stabilized their internal affairs and increased their military might.

Late reforms , by Jan Matejko, 1891, oil on canvas, 227×446centimetre. Royal Castle (Warsaw).Eventually the Commonwealth did make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in 1791 the May Constitution of Poland, Europe's first codified national constitution in the Modern Times (history), and the world's second, after the United States Constitution that came into being about two years earlier. The revolutionary Constitution recast the erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian federal state with a hereditary monarchy and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system. The new constitution:

These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors who content to leave the weak Commonwealth alone as a buffer, reacted strongly to the king Stanisław August Poniatowski's and other reformers attempts to strengthen the country. Russia feared the revolutionary implications of the May 3rd Constitution's political reforms and the prospect of the Commonwealth regaining its position as a European empire. Catherine the Great regarded the May constitution as fatal to her influenceHenry Eldridge Bourne, The Revolutionary Period in Europe 1763 to 1815, Kessinger Publishing, 2005, ISBN 1-4179-3418-2, Google Print p161 and declared the Polish constitution Jacobin (politics).Wolfgang Menzel, Germany from the Earliest Period Vol. 4, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1-4191-2171-5, Google Print, p33 Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin drafted the act for the Confederation of Targowica, referring to the constitution as the 'contagion of democratic ideas'.Isabel de Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2002, ISBN 1-84212-511-7, Google Print p431 Meanwhile Prussia and Austria, also afraid of the strengthened Poland, used it as a pretext for further territorial expansion. Prussian minister Ewald von Hertzberg called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy",Carl L. Bucki, The Constitution of May 3, 1791, Text of a presentation made at the Polish Arts Club of Buffalo on the occasion of the celebrations of Poland's Constitution Day on May 3 1996, last accessed on 20 March 2006 fearing that strengthened Poland would once again dominate PrussiaPiotr Stefan Wandycz, The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present, Routledge (UK), 2001, ISBN 0-415-25491-4, Google Print p131 In the end, the May 3rd Constitution was never fully implemented, and the Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after the Constitution's adoption.

Commonwealth military s, by Józef Brandt

Polish Army were commanded by two Grand Hetmans and two Field HetmansThe armies comprised:

Some units of the Commonwealth included:

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy was small and played a relatively minor role in the history of the Commonwealth, but won very important naval battle of Oliwa, breaking Swedish sea blockade in 1627.On the Black Sea Cossacks with their small boats (czajka) were know from their plundering raids against Ottoman Empire and its vassals (they even burned suburbs of Istanbul once or twice).

Economy .), 1858, by Wilhelm August Stryowski (1834–1917), 110×138centimetre minted during the reign of King Stefan Batory coin of 1589 (Sigismund III Vasa period)The economics of the Commonwealth was dominated by feudalism agriculture based on plantation economy (serfs). Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588. Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History they were replaced by the second enserfment. Typically a nobleman's landholding comprised a folwark, a large farm worked by serfs to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes in the early era of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the grain trade. However the country's situation worsened from the late 17th century on, when the landed szlachta sought to compensate for falling cereal prices by increasing the peasants' workload, thus leading to the creation of second serfdom, a phenomena common throughout contemporary Eastern Europe.

The Commonwealth's preoccupation with agriculture, coupled with the szlachta's dominance over the bourgeoisie, resulted in a fairly slow process of urbanization and thus a fairly slow development of industry. While similar conflicts among social classes may be found all over Europe, nowhere were the nobility as dominant at the time as in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. There is, however, much debate among historians as to which processes most affected those developments, since until the wars and crises of the mid-17th century the cities of the Commonwealth had not markedly lagged in size and wealth behind their western counterparts. The Commonwealth did have numerous towns and city, commonly founded on Magdeburg rights. Some of the largest trade fairs in the Commonwealth were held at Lublin. See the geography section, below, for a list of major cities in the Commonwealth (commonly capitals of voivodships).

Although the Commonwealth was Europe's largest grain producer, the bulk of her grain was consumed domestically. Estimated grain consumption in the Polish Crown (Poland proper) and Prussia in 1560–1570 was some 113,000 tons of wheat (or 226,000 łaszt (a łaszt, or "last," being a large bulk measure; in the case of grain, about half a ton). Average yearly production of grain in the Commonwealth in the 16th century was 120,000 tons, 6% of which was exported, while cities consumed some 19% and the remainder was consumed by the villages. The exports probably satisfied about 2% of the demand for grain in Western Europe, feeding 750,000 people there. Commonwealth grain achieved far more importance in poor crop years, as in the early 1590s and the 1620s, when governments throughout southern Europe arranged for large grain imports to cover shortfalls in their jurisdictions.

Still, grain was the largest export commodity of the Commonwealth. The owner of a folwark usually signed a contract with merchants of Gdansk (German language Danzig), who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain north to that seaport on the Baltic Sea. Many rivers in the Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes: the Vistula, Pilica, Western Bug, San River, Nida River, Wieprz, Niemen. The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with river ports and granary. Most of the river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber.

From Gdańsk, ships, mostly from the Netherlands and Flanders, carried the grain to ports such as Antwerp and Amsterdam. Gdańsk ships accounted for only 2–10% of this maritime trade. Besides grain, other seaborne exports included lumber and wood-related products such as tar and wiktionary:ash.

By land routes, the Commonwealth exported hides, furs, hemp, cotton (mostly from Wielkopolska) and linen to the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire, including cities like Leipzig and Nuremberg. Large herds (of around 50,000 head) of cattle were driven south through Silesia.

The Commonwealth imported spices, luxury goods, clothing, fish, beer and industrial products like steel and tools. A few riverboats carried south imports from Gdańsk like wine, fruit, spices and herring. Somewhere between the 16th century and 17th century centuries, the Commonwealth's trade balance shifted from positive to negative.

With the advent of the Age of Exploration, many old trade route such as the Amber Road lost importance as new ones were created. Poland's importance as a caravan route between Asia and Europe diminished, while new local trading routes were created between the Commonwealth and Russia. But even with improvements in shipping technology the Commonwealth remained an important link between Occident and Orient, as many goods and cultural artifacts passed from one region to another via the Commonwealth. For example, Isfahan rugs imported from Persia to the Commonwealth were actually known in the West as "Polish rugs". Also, the price of eastern spices in Poland was several times lower than in western ports, which led to the creation of a distinct Polish cuisine, owing much both to the eastern and western influence.

Commonwealth currency included the złoty and the grosz. The City of Gdańsk had the privilege of minting its own coinage.

Culture 's Artis Magnæ Artilleriæ pars prima, Białystok, built 1726, 73×130centimetre, Museum of Arts (Łódź), built 1643–1645 and frequently remodeled. Foreground: equestrian statue of Prince Jozef Poniatowski by Bertel Thorvaldsen

The Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by philosophy such as Erasmus; and, during the Counter-Reformation, was known for near-unparalleled religious tolerance, with peacefully coexisting Catholic, Judaism, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant and even Muslim communities. The Commonwealth gave rise to the famous Christian sect of the Polish Brethren, antecedents of United Kingdom and United States Unitarianism.

With its political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to political philosophy such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503–1572), Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki (1530–1607) and Piotr Skarga (1536–1612). Later, works by Stanisław Staszic (1755–1826) and Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812) helped pave the way for the Constitution of [May 3, 1791, the first Modern Times (history) codified national constitution in Europe, which enacted revolutionary political science principles for the first time on that continent.

Kraków's Jagiellonian University is one of the oldest universities in the world. Vilnius University and the Jagiellonian University were the major scholarly and scientific centers in the Commonwealth. The Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, (Polish language for Commission for National Education), formed in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education. Commonwealth scientists included:

The many classics of Commonwealth Polish literature include:

Many szlachta members wrote memoirs and diary. Perhaps the most famous are the Memoirs of Polish History by Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł (1595–1656) and the Memoirs of Jan Chryzostom Pasek (ca. 1636 – ca. 1701).

Magnates often undertook construction projects as monuments to themselves: churches, cathedrals, and palaces like the present-day Presidential Palace, Warsaw built by Grand Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski herbu Pobog Coat of Arms. The largest projects involved entire towns, although in time many of them would lapse into obscurity or be totally abandoned. Usually they were named after the sponsoring magnate. Among the most famous is the town of Zamość, founded by Jan Zamoyski and designed by the Italy architect Bernardo Morando.

Szlachta and Sarmatism , ZamośćThe prevalent ideology of the szlachta became "Sarmatism", named after the Sarmatians, alleged ancestors of the Poles. This belief system was an important part of the szlachta's culture, penetrating all aspects of its life. Sarmatism enshrined equality among szlachta, horseback riding, tradition, provincial rural life, peace and pacifism; championed {{Infobox Former Country| native_name=''[Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów'' ([Polish language)''Abiejų tautų respublika'' ([Lithuanian language) | conventional_long_name= Commonwealth of Both Nations | common_name = Poland–Lithuania | continent=Europe | status=State union | p1=Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569) | image_p1=] | p2=Grand Duchy of Lithuania | image_p2=] | s1=Kingdom of Prussia | flag_s1=Flag of Prussia (1750).gif | s2=Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria | flag_s2=Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg | s3=Russian Empire | flag_s3=Flag of Russia.svg | year_start=1569 | date_start=July 1 | event_start=[Union of Lublin | year_end=1795 | date_end=October 24, [ | event_end=[Partitions of Poland | event1=[Partitions of Poland | date_event1=August 5, [ | event2=Constitution of [May 3, [ | date_event2=May 3, [ | event3=[Partitions of Poland | date_event3=January 23, [ | image_coat=Herb Rzeczpospolitej Obojga Narodow.svg | symbol=Coat of arms of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth | image_map=Location-Pol-Lith-Commonwealth.png | image_map_caption=The Commonwealth around 1619 | government_type=Monarchy | legislature=Sejm | title_leader=[List of Polish monarchs | leader1=[List of Polish monarchs | title_deputy=[List of Lithuanian rulers | deputy1=[List of Lithuanian rulers | religion=[Roman Catholic Church | capital=Kraków until [, Warsaw (shared with [Grodno from [) | stat_area1=815000 | stat_pop1=6500000 | stat_year1=1582 | stat_area2=990000 | stat_pop2=10500000 | stat_year2=1618 | national_motto=Si Deus Nobiscum quis contra nos([Latin: ''If God is with us, then who is against us'')[Pro Fide, Lege et Rege([Latin: ''For Faith, Law and King'', since [18th century) | common_languages= Polish language,Daniel. Z Stone, ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0295980931&id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=%22official+language%22+Poland+Lithuania&sig=vUDl2wB7wuTLJuBYjxX2KuKxpNs The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795'', p46 [Latin, [Lithuanian language{{cite book | last = Zinkevičius | first = Z. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Rytų Lietuva praeityje ir dabar | publisher = Vilnius: [Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla -->) (1657–1686)

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, also known as the First Polish Republic or Republic (Commonwealth) of the Two (Both) Nations (Peoples), ( or Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; ) or as the "First Republic," was one of the largest and most populous Heritage: Interactive Atlas: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, accessed on 19 March 2006: At its apogee, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth comprised some 400,000 square miles and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million. For population comparisons, see also those maps: , . countries in 17th century Europe. Its political structure — that of a semi-federal, semi-confederal aristocracy republic — was formed in 1569 by the Union of Lublin, which united the Jagiellon Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and lasted in this form until the adoption of the Constitution of May 3, 1791. The Commonwealth covered not only the territories of what is now Poland and Lithuania, but also the entire territory of Belarus and Latvia, large parts of Ukraine and Estonia, and part of present-day western Russia (Smolensk and Kaliningrad oblasts). Originally the official languages of the Commonwealth were Polish language and Latin (in the Kingdom of Poland) and Ruthenian language and Lithuanian language (in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania).

The Commonwealth was an extension of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, a personal union between those two states that had existed from 1386 (see Union of Krewo). The Commonwealth's political system, often called the Noble's democracy or Golden Freedom, was characterized by the Monarch power being reduced by laws and the legislature (Sejm) controlled by the nobility (szlachta). This system was a precursor of the modern concepts of broader democracyMaciej Janowski, Polish Liberal Thought, Central European University Press, 2001, ISBN 963-9241-18-0, Google Print: p3, p12 and constitutional monarchyPaul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-19-820654-2, Google print p84Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance, Duke University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8223-1802-4, Google Print, p34George Sanford (scholar), Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics Since 1989, Palgrave, 2002, ISBN 0-333-77475-2, Google print p11 — constitutional monarchy, p3 — anarchy as well as federation.Aleksander Gella, Development of Class Structure in Eastern Europe: Poland and Her Southern Neighbors, SUNY Press, 1998, ISBN 0-88706-833-2, Google Print, p13 The two comprising states of the Commonwealth were formally equal, although in reality Poland was a dominant partner in the union."Formally, Poland and Lithuania were to be distinct, equal components of the federation… But Poland, which retained possession of the Lithuanian lands it had seized, but Poland had greater representation in the Diet and became the dominant partner."The Roman Catholic Church had massive influence in the affairs of the Commonwealth, which was however notable for the state's relative religious tolerance,Halina Stephan, Living in Translation: Polish Writers in America, Rodopi, 2003, ISBN 90-420-1016-9, Google Print p373. Quoting from Sarmatian Review academic journal mission statement: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was characterized by religious tolerance unusual in premodern Europe although the degree of it varied with timeFeliks Gross, Citizenship and Ethnicity: The Growth and Development of a Democratic Multiethnic Institution, Greenwood Press, 1999, ISBN 0-313-30932-9, Google Print, p122 (notes) Its economics was mainly based on agriculture. While the Commonwealth's first century was a golden age for both Poland and Lithuania, the second century was marked by military defeats, a return to serfdom for the peasants (the second serfdom phenomena The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis, discussion and full online text of Evsey Domar (1970) "The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis," Economic History Review '30:1 (March), pp18–32), and growing anarchy (word)Martin Van Gelderen, Quentin Skinner, Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-80756-5 Google Print: p54 in political life.Shortly before its demise, the Commonwealth adopted the world's second-oldest codex national constitution in Modern Times (history);John Markoff (professor) describes the advent of modern codified national constitutions and states that "The first European country to follow the U.S. example was Poland in 1791." John Markoff, Waves of Democracy, 1996, ISBN 0-8039-9019-7, Google Print, p121

The Duchy of Warsaw, established in 1807, traced its origins to the Commonwealth. Other revival movements appeared during the January Uprising (1863–1864) and in the 1920s, with Józef Piłsudski's failed attempt to create a Polish-led "Międzymorze" ("Between-Seas") federation that would have included Lithuania and Ukrainian People's Republic. Today's Poland considers itself a successor to the Commonwealth,As stated, for instance by the preamble of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 1997. whereas the pre-World War II Lithuania distanced itself from any association which it considered not to have been historically beneficial to Lithuania.Alfonsas Eidintas, Vytautas Zalys, Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918–1940, Palgrave, 1999, ISBN 0-312-22458-3. Print, p78

History The creation of the Commonwealth by the Union of Lublin in 1569 was one of the signal achievements of Sigismund II Augustus, last king of the Jagiellon dynasty. His death in 1572 was followed by a three-year interregnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system that effectively increased the power of the nobility (the szlachta) and established a truly elective monarchy.

The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the first half of the 17th century. Its powerful parliament (the Sejm) was dominated by nobles who were reluctant to get involved in the Thirty Years' War, sparing the country from the ravages of this largely religious conflict devastating most of contemporary Europe. The Commonwealth was able to hold its own against Sweden, Muscovy, and vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and at times launched successful expansionism offensives against its neighbors. During Russo-Polish War (1605-1618), which was weakened in early-17th century by the Time of Troubles, Commonwealth troops managed to take Moscow and hold on to it from 27 September 1610 to 4 November 1612, until driven out by Russo-Polish War (1605-1618)#The war resumes .281611.29 in 1611.

Commonwealth power waned after a double blow in 1648. The first blow was history's greatest :category:Cossack uprisings (the Khmelnytskyi Uprising, supported by Crimean Khanate Tatars, in the eastern territories of Kresy), which resulted in Cossacks Treaty of Pereyaslav. In 1651, in the face of a growing threat from Poland, and forsaken by his Tatar allies, Bohdan Khmelnytsky asked the Tsar to incorporate Ukraine as an autonomous duchy under Russian protection. (1654) thus leading to Russian influence over Ukraine gradually supplanting the Polish. The other blow to the Commonwealth was the Swedish invasion in 1655 (supported by troops of Transylvanian duke George II Rakoczy and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, Prince-elector of Brandenburg), known as The Deluge (Polish history), provoked by the policies of Commonwealth kings from the Swedish royal House of Vasa.

In the late 17th century, the weakened Commonwealth under King John III of Poland in alliance with the forces of Holy Roman emperor Leopold I dealt the crushing defeats to the Ottoman Empire: in 1683, the Battle of Vienna marked the final turning point in a 250-year struggle between the forces of Christianity Europe and the Islamic Ottoman Empire. For its centuries long stance against the Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of "Antemurale Christianitatis" (forefront of Christianity). Over the next 16 years (in the "Great Turkish War") the Turks would be permanently driven south of the Danube River, never to threaten central Europe again.

By the 18th century, the Commonwealth was facing many internal problems and was vulnerable to foreign influences. The destabilization of the political system brought it to the brink of anarchism. Attempts at reform, such as those made by the Four-Year Sejm of 1788–1792, which culminated in the May Constitution of Poland of 1791, came too late, and the country was partitions of Poland by the neighboring Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Monarchy. By 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map of Europe. Poland and Lithuania re-established their independence, as separate countries, only in 1918.

State organization and politics i.e. Stanislaus II August coat of arms is placed in the middle of the shield. The sculpture is situated in Poznań. Golden Liberty of 1569, by Jan Matejko, 1869, oil on canvas, 298×512centimetre, National Museum, Warsaw

The political doctrine of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was: our state is a republic under the presidency of the King. Kanclerz Jan Zamoyski summed up this doctrine when he said that "Rex regnat et non gubernat" ("The King reigns but does not govern"). The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a Senat and an elected king. The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in King Henry's Articles as well as in Pacta conventa (Poland) negotiated at the time of his election.

The monarch's power was limited, in favor of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to subscribe to King Henry's Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of religious tolerance). Over time, King Henry's Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of senators.

The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the "Golden Liberty" (, a term used from 1573), included:

. The Free election of 1573, by Jan MatejkoThe three regions (see below) of the Commonwealth enjoyed a degree of Autonomous entity. Each voivodship had its own parliament (sejmik), which exercised serious political power, including choice of poseł (Chamber of Deputies) to the national Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had its own separate army, treasury and most other official institutions.

Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar political systems existed in the contemporary city-states like the Republic of Venice.Joanna Olkiewicz, Najaśniejsza Republika Wenecka (Most Serene Republic of Venice), Książka i Wiedza, 1972, Warszawa (interestingly both states were styled the "Most Serene Republic."Joseph Conrad, Notes on Life and Letters: Notes on Life and Letters, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-56163-9, Google Print, p422 (notes)) At a time when most European countries were headed toward centralization, absolute monarchy and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with decentralization, confederation and federation, democracy, religious tolerance and even pacifism. Since the Sejm usually vetoed a monarch's plans for war, this constitutes a notable argument for the democratic peace theory. 2000. Especially pp9–11, 114, 181, 323.

This unusual for its time political system stemmed from the victories of the szlachta (nobility over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of:

The political players and Grand Hetman Jan Zamoyski herbu Jelita Coat of Arms, in crimson delia and blue silk żupan. Holds hetman's baton (buława)

The major players in the politics of the Commonwealth were:

The magnates and the szlachta were far from united, with many factions supporting either the monarch or various of the magnates.

Shortcomings of the Commonwealth — The Fall of Poland", oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1866, 282×487centimetre, Royal Castle in Warsaw. Tadeusz Rejtan (lower right) in September 1773 tried to prevent the legitimisation of the Partitions of Poland by preventing the members of Sejm from entering the chamber.

Once the Jagiellon dynasty had disappeared from the scene in 1572, the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government began to shake. Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility.

In their periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not found another strong dynasty. This policy often produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the able Transylvanian Stefan Batory (1576–1586), the kings of foreign origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. This was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish House of Vasa, whose politics brought the Commonwealth into conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as The Deluge (Polish history) (1648), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline.

Rokosz of Zebrzydowski (1606–1607) marked a substantial increase in the power of the magnates, and the transformation of szlachta democracy into magnate oligarchy. The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies bribedWilliam Bullitt, The Great Globe Itself: A Preface to World Affairs, Transaction Publishers, 2005, ISBN 1-4128-0490-6, Google Print, pp42–43John Adams, The Political Writings of John Adams, Regnery Gateway, 2001, ISBN 0-89526-292-4, Google Print, p.242 by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over a century, from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th century, while her neighbors stabilized their internal affairs and increased their military might.

Late reforms , by Jan Matejko, 1891, oil on canvas, 227×446centimetre. Royal Castle (Warsaw).Eventually the Commonwealth did make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in 1791 the May Constitution of Poland, Europe's first codified national constitution in the Modern Times (history), and the world's second, after the United States Constitution that came into being about two years earlier. The revolutionary Constitution recast the erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian federal state with a hereditary monarchy and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system. The new constitution:

These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors who content to leave the weak Commonwealth alone as a buffer, reacted strongly to the king Stanisław August Poniatowski's and other reformers attempts to strengthen the country. Russia feared the revolutionary implications of the May 3rd Constitution's political reforms and the prospect of the Commonwealth regaining its position as a European empire. Catherine the Great regarded the May constitution as fatal to her influenceHenry Eldridge Bourne, The Revolutionary Period in Europe 1763 to 1815, Kessinger Publishing, 2005, ISBN 1-4179-3418-2, Google Print p161 and declared the Polish constitution Jacobin (politics).Wolfgang Menzel, Germany from the Earliest Period Vol. 4, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1-4191-2171-5, Google Print, p33 Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin drafted the act for the Confederation of Targowica, referring to the constitution as the 'contagion of democratic ideas'.Isabel de Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2002, ISBN 1-84212-511-7, Google Print p431 Meanwhile Prussia and Austria, also afraid of the strengthened Poland, used it as a pretext for further territorial expansion. Prussian minister Ewald von Hertzberg called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy",Carl L. Bucki, The Constitution of May 3, 1791, Text of a presentation made at the Polish Arts Club of Buffalo on the occasion of the celebrations of Poland's Constitution Day on May 3 1996, last accessed on 20 March 2006 fearing that strengthened Poland would once again dominate PrussiaPiotr Stefan Wandycz, The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present, Routledge (UK), 2001, ISBN 0-415-25491-4, Google Print p131 In the end, the May 3rd Constitution was never fully implemented, and the Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after the Constitution's adoption.

Commonwealth military s, by Józef Brandt

Polish Army were commanded by two Grand Hetmans and two Field HetmansThe armies comprised:

Some units of the Commonwealth included:

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy was small and played a relatively minor role in the history of the Commonwealth, but won very important naval battle of Oliwa, breaking Swedish sea blockade in 1627.On the Black Sea Cossacks with their small boats (czajka) were know from their plundering raids against Ottoman Empire and its vassals (they even burned suburbs of Istanbul once or twice).

Economy .), 1858, by Wilhelm August Stryowski (1834–1917), 110×138centimetre minted during the reign of King Stefan Batory coin of 1589 (Sigismund III Vasa period)The economics of the Commonwealth was dominated by feudalism agriculture based on plantation economy (serfs). Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588. Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History they were replaced by the second enserfment. Typically a nobleman's landholding comprised a folwark, a large farm worked by serfs to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes in the early era of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the grain trade. However the country's situation worsened from the late 17th century on, when the landed szlachta sought to compensate for falling cereal prices by increasing the peasants' workload, thus leading to the creation of second serfdom, a phenomena common throughout contemporary Eastern Europe.

The Commonwealth's preoccupation with agriculture, coupled with the szlachta's dominance over the bourgeoisie, resulted in a fairly slow process of urbanization and thus a fairly slow development of industry. While similar conflicts among social classes may be found all over Europe, nowhere were the nobility as dominant at the time as in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. There is, however, much debate among historians as to which processes most affected those developments, since until the wars and crises of the mid-17th century the cities of the Commonwealth had not markedly lagged in size and wealth behind their western counterparts. The Commonwealth did have numerous towns and city, commonly founded on Magdeburg rights. Some of the largest trade fairs in the Commonwealth were held at Lublin. See the geography section, below, for a list of major cities in the Commonwealth (commonly capitals of voivodships).

Although the Commonwealth was Europe's largest grain producer, the bulk of her grain was consumed domestically. Estimated grain consumption in the Polish Crown (Poland proper) and Prussia in 1560–1570 was some 113,000 tons of wheat (or 226,000 łaszt (a łaszt, or "last," being a large bulk measure; in the case of grain, about half a ton). Average yearly production of grain in the Commonwealth in the 16th century was 120,000 tons, 6% of which was exported, while cities consumed some 19% and the remainder was consumed by the villages. The exports probably satisfied about 2% of the demand for grain in Western Europe, feeding 750,000 people there. Commonwealth grain achieved far more importance in poor crop years, as in the early 1590s and the 1620s, when governments throughout southern Europe arranged for large grain imports to cover shortfalls in their jurisdictions.

Still, grain was the largest export commodity of the Commonwealth. The owner of a folwark usually signed a contract with merchants of Gdansk (German language Danzig), who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain north to that seaport on the Baltic Sea. Many rivers in the Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes: the Vistula, Pilica, Western Bug, San River, Nida River, Wieprz, Niemen. The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with river ports and granary. Most of the river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber.

From Gdańsk, ships, mostly from the Netherlands and Flanders, carried the grain to ports such as Antwerp and Amsterdam. Gdańsk ships accounted for only 2–10% of this maritime trade. Besides grain, other seaborne exports included lumber and wood-related products such as tar and wiktionary:ash.

By land routes, the Commonwealth exported hides, furs, hemp, cotton (mostly from Wielkopolska) and linen to the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire, including cities like Leipzig and Nuremberg. Large herds (of around 50,000 head) of cattle were driven south through Silesia.

The Commonwealth imported spices, luxury goods, clothing, fish, beer and industrial products like steel and tools. A few riverboats carried south imports from Gdańsk like wine, fruit, spices and herring. Somewhere between the 16th century and 17th century centuries, the Commonwealth's trade balance shifted from positive to negative.

With the advent of the Age of Exploration, many old trade route such as the Amber Road lost importance as new ones were created. Poland's importance as a caravan route between Asia and Europe diminished, while new local trading routes were created between the Commonwealth and Russia. But even with improvements in shipping technology the Commonwealth remained an important link between Occident and Orient, as many goods and cultural artifacts passed from one region to another via the Commonwealth. For example, Isfahan rugs imported from Persia to the Commonwealth were actually known in the West as "Polish rugs". Also, the price of eastern spices in Poland was several times lower than in western ports, which led to the creation of a distinct Polish cuisine, owing much both to the eastern and western influence.

Commonwealth currency included the złoty and the grosz. The City of Gdańsk had the privilege of minting its own coinage.

Culture 's Artis Magnæ Artilleriæ pars prima, Białystok, built 1726, 73×130centimetre, Museum of Arts (Łódź), built 1643–1645 and frequently remodeled. Foreground: equestrian statue of Prince Jozef Poniatowski by Bertel Thorvaldsen

The Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by philosophy such as Erasmus; and, during the Counter-Reformation, was known for near-unparalleled religious tolerance, with peacefully coexisting Catholic, Judaism, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant and even Muslim communities. The Commonwealth gave rise to the famous Christian sect of the Polish Brethren, antecedents of United Kingdom and United States Unitarianism.

With its political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to political philosophy such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503–1572), Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki (1530–1607) and Piotr Skarga (1536–1612). Later, works by Stanisław Staszic (1755–1826) and Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812) helped pave the way for the Constitution of [May 3, 1791, the first Modern Times (history) codified national constitution in Europe, which enacted revolutionary political science principles for the first time on that continent.

Kraków's Jagiellonian University is one of the oldest universities in the world. Vilnius University and the Jagiellonian University were the major scholarly and scientific centers in the Commonwealth. The Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, (Polish language for Commission for National Education), formed in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education. Commonwealth scientists included:

The many classics of Commonwealth Polish literature include:

Many szlachta members wrote memoirs and diary. Perhaps the most famous are the Memoirs of Polish History by Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł (1595–1656) and the Memoirs of Jan Chryzostom Pasek (ca. 1636 – ca. 1701).

Magnates often undertook construction projects as monuments to themselves: churches, cathedrals, and palaces like the present-day Presidential Palace, Warsaw built by Grand Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski herbu Pobog Coat of Arms. The largest projects involved entire towns, although in time many of them would lapse into obscurity or be totally abandoned. Usually they were named after the sponsoring magnate. Among the most famous is the town of Zamość, founded by Jan Zamoyski and designed by the Italy architect Bernardo Morando.

Szlachta and Sarmatism , ZamośćThe prevalent ideology of the szlachta became "Sarmatism", named after the Sarmatians, alleged ancestors of the Poles. This belief system was an important part of the szlachta's culture, penetrating all aspects of its life. Sarmatism enshrined equality among szlachta, horseback riding, tradition, provincial rural life, peace and pacifism; championed

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